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Preparing for a Trip

Explore this section to find information and resources useful to anyone interested in learning more about responsible whale watching throughout the world

Industry Support

Explore this section to find information and resources useful to whale watching tour operators and guides or other industry professionals

Species Information

Click on one of the icons to the right to reveal a full description of the species with photos and labeled illustrations useful for species identification, as well as information on biology, ecology and conservation status of each species. Click here to find downloadable PDF fact sheets for each of the species featured on this site.

Blue Whale
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Bottlenose Dolphin
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Bowhead Whale
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Brydes Whale
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Common Dolphin
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Dusky Dolphin
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False Killer Whale
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Fin Whale
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Grey Whale
Gray Whale View more
Harbour Porpoise
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Humpback Dolphin
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Humpback Whale
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Irrawaddy Dolphin
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Killer Whale
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Minke Whale
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Pilot Whale
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Right Whale
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Sei Whale
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Sperm Whale
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Spinner Dolphin
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Spotted Dolphin
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Striped Dolphin
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Download Resources

Explore this section to find links to downloadable PDF reports, species ID guides, a table of guidelines and regulations from around the world, a glossary of whale-watching terms, and a fully searchable database of over 300 reports and peer-reviewed articles on whale watching.

About the Handbook

This Handbook is designed to support managers, regulators, operators and anyone interested in whale watching. It is a flexible and evolving tool incorporating international best practice, educational resources and a summary of the latest, relevant scientific information.  Content has been drafted and sourced in consultation with IWC and CMS affiliated scientists and managers from around the world, and is reviewed each year at the meeting of the Scientific Committee of the International Whaling Commission.

Potential impacts of whale watching on whales & dolphins

In this Section

A summary of studies documenting impacts of whale watching activities on individual or populations of whales and dolphins

Adapted and updated from Parsons, 2012 [1]  Last updated March, 2018

Impact

Species

Reference

Change in surfacing/diving

Common bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops truncatus

[2-4]

 

Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops aduncus

[5, 6]

 

Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin, Sousa chinensis

[7]

 

Costero, Sotalia guianensis

[8]

 

Killer whale, Orcinus orca

[9]

 

Humpback whale, Megaptera novaeangliae

[10]

 

Fin whale, Balaenoptera physalus

[11]

 

Sperm whale, Physeter macrocephalus

[12, 13]

 

 

 

Change in swimming speed

Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops aduncus

[6]

 

Spinner dolphin, Stenella longirostris

[14]

 

Killer whale Orcinus orca

[9, 15]

 

Humpback whale, Megaptera novaeangliae

[16]

 

 

 

Change in swimming direction

Common bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops truncatus

[17, 18]

 

Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops aduncus

[5]

 

Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin, Sousa chinensis

[7]

 

Spinner dolphin, Stenella longirostris

[19, 20]

 

Costero, Sotalia guianensis

[21]

 

Killer whale, Orcinus orca

[9, 15, 22]

 

Humpback whale, Megaptera novaeangliae

[23, 24]

 

Gray whale, Eschrichtius robustus

[25]

 

Sperm whale, Physeter macrocephalus

[13]

 

 

 

Increased leaping, tail slapping

Common bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops truncatus

[26]

 

Commerson’s dolphin, Cephalorhynchus commersonii

[27]

 

Spinner dolphin, Stenella longirostris

[28]

 

Killer whale, Orcinus orca

[29]

 

Humpback whale, Megaptera novaeangliae

[23, 30]

 

 

 

Change in vocalization

Common bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops truncatus

[31-35]

 

Killer whale, Orcinus orca

[36]

 

Humpback whale, Megaptera novaeangliae

[37, 38]

 

Sperm whale, Physeter macrocephalus

[13]

 

 

 

Change in group size or cohesion

Common bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops truncatus

[17, 18, 34]

 

Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops aduncus

[39]

 

Tucuxi, Sotalia guianensis

[8]

 

 

 

Altered feeding or resting

Common bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops truncatus

[40-47]

 

Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops aduncus

[39, 48, 49]

 

Australian bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops australis

[50-52]

 

Common dolphin, Delphinus sp.

[53, 54]

 

Costero, Sotalia guianensis

[55]

 

Dusky dolphin, Lagenorhynchus obscurus

[27, 56, 57]

 

Commerson’s dolphin, Cephalorhynchus comersonii

[27]

 

Risso’s dolphin, Grampus griseus

[58]

 

Killer whale, Orcinus orca

[59, 60]

 

Humpback whale, Megaptera novaeangliae

[61]

 

Minke whale, Balaenoptera acutorostrata

[62]

 

Southern right whale, Eubalaena australis

[63]

 

 

 

Population declines or shifts linked to whale watch activities

Common bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops truncatus

[64-66]

 

Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops aduncus

[49]

 

Australian bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops australis

[51]


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References

Show / Hide References
  1. Parsons, E., The negative impacts of whale-watching. Journal of Marine Biology, 2012. 2012.
  2. Janik, V.M. and P.M. Thompson, Changes in surfacing patterns of bottlenose dolphins in response to boat traffic. Marine mammal science, 1996. 12(4): p. 597-602.
  3. Hastie, G.D., et al., Bottlenose dolphins increase breathing synchrony in response to boat traffic. Marine Mammal Science, 2003. 19(1): p. 74-84.
  4. Lusseau, D., The short-term behavioral reactions of Bottlenose dolphins to interaction with boats in Doubtful Sound, New Zealand. Marine Mammal Science, 2006. 22(4): p. 802-818.
  5. Stensland, E. and P. Berggren, Behavioural changes in female Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins in response to boat-based tourism. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 2007. 332: p. 225-234.
  6. Matsuda, N., M. Shirakihara, and K. Shirakihara, Effects of dolphin-watching boats on the behavior of Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins off Amakusa-Shimoshima Island, Japan. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi, 2011. 77(1): p. 8-14.
  7. Ng, S.L. and S. Leung, Behavioral response of Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin (Sousa chinensis) to vessel traffic. Marine Environmental Research, 2003. 56: p. 555-567.
  8. do Valle, A.L. and F.C.C. Melo, Behavioral alterations in the gray dolphin Sotalia guianensis (Gervais, 1953) caused by sea traffic. Biotemas, 2006. 19(1): p. 75-80.
  9. Williams, R., et al., Effects of vessels on behaviour patterns of individual southern resident killer whales Orcinus orca. Endangered Species Research, 2009. 6(3): p. 199-209.
  10. Corkeron, P.J., Humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) in Hervey Bay, Queensland: behaviour and responses to whale-watching vessels. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 1995. 73(7): p. 1290-1299.
  11. Stone, G., et al., Respiration and surfacing rates of fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus) observed from a lighthouse tower. Report of the International Whaling Commission, 1992. 42: p. 739-745.
  12. Gordon, J., et al., Effects of whale-watching vessels on the surface and underwater acoustic behaviour of sperm whales off Kaikoura, New Zealand, in Science & Research Series No. 52. 1992, Department of Conservation: Wellington, New Zealand.
  13. Richter, C., S. Dawson, and E. Slooten, Impacts of commercial whale watching on male sperm whales at Kaikoura, New Zealand. Marine Mammal Science, 2006. 22(1): p. 46-63.
  14. Timmel, G., et al., Effects of human traffic on the movement patterns of Hawaiian spinner dolphins (Stenella longirostris) in Kealakekua Bay, Hawaii. Aquatic Mammals, 2008. 34(4): p. 402.
  15. Williams, R., A.W. Trites, and D.E. Bain, Behavioural responses of killer whales (Orcinus orca) to whale-watching boats: opportunistic observations and experimental approaches. Journal of Zoology, 2002. 256(2): p. 255-270.
  16. Scheidat, M., et al., Behavioural responses of humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) to whalewatching boats near Isla de la Plata, Machalilla National Park, Ecuador. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management, 2004. 6(1): p. 63-68.
  17. Bejder, L., et al., Interpreting short-term behavioural responses to disturbance within a longitudinal perspective. Animal Behaviour, 2006. 72(5): p. 1149-1158.
  18. Mattson, M.C., J. Thomas, and D. St. Aubin, Effects of Boat Activity on the Behavior of Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in Waters Surrounding Hilton Head Island, South Carolina. Aquatic Mammals, 2005. 31(1).
  19. Leung, C.C.M., et al., Petroleum hydrocarbons, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in tissues of Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin from south China waters. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 2005. 50: p. 1713-1744.
  20. Delfour, F., Hawaiian spinner dolphins and the growing dolphin watching activity in Oahu. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 2007. 87(1): p. 109-112.
  21. Filla, G.d.F. and E.L.d.A. Monteiro-Filho, Monitoring tourism schooners observing estuarine dolphins (Sotalia guianensis) in the Estuarine Complex of Cananéia, south-east Brazil. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 2009. 19(7): p. 772-778.
  22. Williams, R. and E. Ashe, Killer whale evasive tactics vary with boat number. Journal of Zoology, 2007. 272(4): p. 390-397.
  23. Stamation, K.A., et al., Behavioral responses of humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) to whale-watching vessels on the southeastern coast of Australia. Marine Mammal Science, 2010. 26(1): p. 98 - 122.
  24. Schaffar, A., et al., Behavioural effects of whale-watching activities on an Endangered population of humpback whales wintering in New Caledonia. Endangered Species Research, 2013. 19(3): p. 245-254.
  25. Heckel, G., et al., The influence of whalewatching on the behaviour of migrating gray whales (Eschrictius robustus) in Todos Santos Bay and surrounding waters, Baja California, Mexico. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management, 2001. 3(3): p. 227-238.
  26. Lusseau, D., The short-term behaioural reactions of bottelnose dolphins to interactions with boats in Doubtful Sound, New Zealand. Marine Mammal Science, 2006. 22(4): p. 802-818.
  27. Coscarella, M.A., et al., Potential impact of unregulated dolphin watching activities in Patagonia. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management, 2003. 5(1): p. 77-84.
  28. Courbis, S. and G. Timmel, Effects of vessels and swimmers on behavior of Hawaiian spinner dolphins (Stenella longirostris) in Kealake‘akua, Honaunau, and Kauhako Bays, Hawai‘i. Marine Mamal Science, 2009. 25(2): p. 430-440.
  29. Noren, D.P., et al., Close approaches by vessels elicit surface active behaviors by southern resident killer whales. Endangered Species Research, 2009. 8(3): p. 179-192.
  30. Kessler, M., R. Harcourt, and G. Heller, Swimming with whales in Tonga: Sustainable use or threatening process? Marine Policy, 2013. 39(Supplement C): p. 314-316.
  31. Buckstaff, K.C., Effects of watercraft noise on the acoustic behavior of bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops truncatus, in Sarasota Bay, Florida. Marine Mammal Science, 2004. 20(4): p. 709-725.
  32. Scarpaci, C., et al., Bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) increase whistling in the presence of 'swim-with-the-dolphin' tour operations. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management, 2000. 2(3): p. 183-187.
  33. Luís, A.R., M.N. Couchinho, and M.E. dos Santos, Changes in the acoustic behavior of resident bottlenose dolphins near operating vessels. Marine Mammal Science, 2014. 30(4): p. 1417-1426.
  34. Guerra, M., et al., Effects of boats on the surface and acoustic behaviour of an endangered population of bottlenose dolphins. Endangered Species Research, 2014. 24(3): p. 221-236.
  35. May-Collado, L.J. and S.G. Quiñones-Lebrón, Dolphin changes in whistle structure with watercraft activity depends on their behavioral state. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 2014. 135(4): p. EL193-EL198.
  36. Foote, A.D., R.W. Osborne, and A.R. Hoelzel, Whale-call response to masking boat noise. Nature, 2006. 248: p. 910.
  37. Sousa-Lima, R.S. and C.W. Clark, Modeling the effect of boat traffic on hte fluctuation of humpback whale singing activity in the Abrolhos National Marine Park, Brazil. Canadian Acoustics, 2008. 36(1): p. 174-181.
  38. Rossi-Santos, M.R., Whale-watching noise effects on the behavior of humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) in the Brazilian breeding ground. Proceedings of Meetings on Acoustics, 2016. 27(1): p. 1-11.
  39. Steckenreuter, A., L. Möller, and R. Harcourt, How does Australia’s largest dolphin-watching industry affect the behaviour of a small and resident population of Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins? Journal of Environmental Management, 2012. 97(Supplement C): p. 14-21.
  40. Allen, M.C. and A.J. Read, Habitat selection of foraging bottlenose dolphins in relation to boat density near Clearwater, Florida. Marine Mammal Science, 2000. 16(4): p. 815-824.
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  51. Filby, N.E., K.A. Stockin, and C. Scarpaci, Long-term responses of Burrunan dolphins (Tursiops australis) to swim-with dolphin tourism in Port Phillip Bay, Victoria, Australia: A population at risk. Global Ecology and Conservation, 2014. 2: p. 62-71.
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  58. Visser, F., et al., Risso's dolphins alter daily resting pattern in response to whale watching at the Azores. Marine Mammal Science, 2011. 27(2): p. 366-381.
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  62. Christiansen, F., M. Rasmussen, and D. Lusseau, Whale watching disrupts feeding activities of minke whales on a feeding ground. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 2013. 478: p. 239-251.
  63. Lundquist, D., et al., Response of southern right whales to simulated swim-with-whale tourism at Península Valdés, Argentina. Marine Mammal Science, 2013. 29(2): p. E24-E45.
  64. Tezanos-Pinto, G., et al., Decline in local abundance of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in the Bay of Islands, New Zealand. Marine Mammal Science, 2013: p. n/a-n/a.
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